Channels of Distribution and Logistics

Chapter 6 Channels of distribution and logistics LEARNING OBJECTIVES By the end of this chapter you will: n n n n omprehend key elements and decisions in distribution channel design be able to evaluate different configurations of channel structure be familiar with recent trends and developments in channels of distribution appreciate the importance of managing the physical flows of products, services and information into, through, and out of the organization to its customers n grasp the meaning and scope of physical distribution and logistics management n be aware of developments and trends in production and manufacturing, particularly the growth of ‘lean manufacturing’ and implications for logistics n recognize the role of Information Technology and marketing in logistics Channels of distribution and logistics 191 INTRODUCTIONThis chapter deals with the ‘place’ element of marketing strategy (i. e. ‘placement’ of goods and services from their res pective providers into the hands of customers). Before we discuss the structure of marketing channels, followed by logistics, it is useful that we look at their emergence and the functions that channels perform. THE CONSUMER WANTS CYCLE The word ‘channel’ has its origins in the word for canal, which for marketing can be interpreted as a route taken by products as they flow from production to points of intermediate and final use. Marketing is a key factor in a continuous cycle that begins and ends with consumer wants. It is the role of he marketer to interpret consumer wants and combine them with empirical market data such as location of consumers, their numbers and preferences, to establish the starting point for manufacture. On completion of manufacture, the finished product is moved to the consumer and the cycle is complete when he or she obtains satisfaction resulting from product ownership. THE PRODUCER–USER GAP Despite the growth of direct marketing (to be d iscussed in Chapter 10) in today’s complex economy, most producers still do not sell directly to final users. Between them and consumers lie marketing intermediaries. A distribution channel bridges the gap between user and producer, and so plays an integral role in the operation of the marketing concept. Relationships among channel members are influenced by the structure of the channel.Marketing channels can be described as sets of interdependent organizations involved in the process of making a product or service available for use or consumption. DEMAND STIMULUS In addition to marketing channels satisfying demand by supplying goods and services in the right location, at the correct quantity and price, they should stimulate demand through promotional activities of retailers, manufacturers and wholesalers. In this way, a marketing channel should be 192 Channels of distribution and logistics viewed not just as a demand satisfier, but as an orchestrated network that creates valu e for consumers through the generation of form, possession, time and place utilities.We start by examining ways in which distribution systems are designed and how channel policy is determined, depending on the degree of market exposure sought by a company. DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM DESIGN The starting point for marketing channel design is the end consumer. Although an understanding of consumer purchasing patterns is essential, there are other factors that influence channel organization: n n n n n There may be a restriction in choice of outlets available to suppliers, e. g. retail outlets may already have been secured by established manufacturers. Channel design will be influenced by the number, size and geographic concentration of consumers.If customers are few in number, but large and geographically concentrated, it may be that direct channels will be suitable. If customers are dispersed, the mechanics of direct channels become increasingly difficult and there will be a need for a large number of intermediaries. Product characteristics affect channel design. Industrial goods manufacturers tend to use direct channels, but there are other factors that influence the decision. Perishable goods, for example, need to be turned over quickly so direct methods are often applied. Non-perishable, non-bulky goods can be handled via indirect channels. Some products are more suited to indirect channels because of environmental characteristics.For example, in some countries shopping is seen very much as being a leisure activity especially for items like clothing and furniture, so much so that companies such as the Swedish company IKEA have made this a central part of their business model. Some organizations have limited discretion over marketing channel choice owing to economic conditions and legal restrictions. In certain of the Eastern European and Baltic countries such as Estonia, Latvia and Uzbekistan there is still restricted choice in terms of the range and scope of retail outlets for marketers. Any channel decision will have long-term implications for the company, e. g. price will be affected depending on the number of levels between the manufacturer and the end user.A decision to change channels is likely be long term so it is important that existing channel structures are constantly reviewed to exploit opportunities. STRATEGIC CHANNEL CHOICES An important consideration when formulating channel policy is the degree of market exposure sought by the company. Choices available include: Channels of distribution and logistics 193 n n n Intensive distribution where products are placed in as many outlets as possible. This is most common when customers purchase goods frequently, e. g. household goods such as detergents or toothpaste. Wide exposure gives customers many opportunities to buy and the image of the outlet is not important.The aim is to achieve maximum coverage. Selective distribution where products are placed in a more limited number of outlets i n defined geographic areas. Instead of widespread exposure, selective distribution seeks to show products in the most promising or profitable outlets, e. g. high-end ‘designer’ clothes. Exclusive distribution where products are placed in one outlet in a specific area. This brings about a stronger partnership between seller and re-seller and results in strong bonds of loyalty. Part of the agreement usually requires the dealer not to carry competing lines, and the result is a more aggressive selling effort by the distributor of the company’s products, e. g. n exclusive franchise to sell a vehicle brand in a specific geographical area, in return for which the franchisee agrees to supply an appropriate after sales service back-up. We can see that there are several key decisions to make when determining the company’s distribution system. Its importance is underlined by the fact that the choice of distribution channel has an effect on all elements of the marketi ng mix and these are long term. TYPES AND CLASSIFICATION OF CHANNELS Marketing channels can be characterized according to the number of channel levels. Each institution that works to bring the product to the point of consumption is included. The number of intermediaries involved in channel operation determines on how many levels it operates.There are four main types of channel level in consumer markets as shown in Figure 6. 1. The first three levels (zero, one and two) are self explanatory. The three level channel includes a ‘jobber’, or merchant Zero level channel manufacturer Consumer One level channel manufacturer Retailer Consumer Two level channel manufacturer Wholesaler Retailer Consumer Three level channel manufacturer FIGURE 6. 1 Wholesaler Jobber Retailer Consumer Channel relationships 194 Channels of distribution and logistics wholesaler who intervenes between the wholesaler and retailer. It is the jobber’s role to buy from wholesalers and sell to small er retailers, who are not usually serviced by larger wholesalers.Within each channel, intermediaries are connected by three types of flow: 1 Physical flow describes movement of goods from raw material that is processed in various stages of manufacture until it reaches the final consumer. In the case of a towel manufacturer raw material is cotton yarn which flows from the grower via transporters to the manufacturer’s warehouses and plants. Title flow is the passage of ownership from one channel institution to another; when manufacturing towels, title to raw materials passes from the supplier to the manufacturer. Ownership of finished towels passes from manufacturer to the wholesaler or retailer and then to the final consumer. Information flow involves the directed flow of influence from activities such as advertising, personal selling, sales promotion and publicity from one member to other members in the system.Manufacturers of towels direct promotion, and information flows to retailers or wholesalers, known as trade promotion. This type of activity may also be directed to end consumers, i. e. ‘end user’ promotion. 2 3 Conventional marketing channels comprise autonomous business units, each performing a defined set of marketing functions. Co-ordination among channel members is through the bargaining process. Membership of the channel is relatively easy, loyalty is low and this type of network tends to be unstable. Members rarely co-operate with each member working independently of others. Decision makers are more concerned with cost and investment relationships at a single stage of the marketing process and tend to be committed to established working practices.Most food grocery products in the European Union are marketed through conventional marketing channels; independent food and grocery producers are responsible for growing, rearing and manufacturing products and brands. These are sold through a series of wholesalers and retailers such as Sainsbury’s, Aldi, Lidl, Tesco or Carrefour each operating as independent businesses in the chain and selling to their own customers. Vertical marketing systems are in contrast to conventional channels where members co-ordinate activities between different levels of the channel to reach a desired target market. The essential feature is that participants acknowledge and desire interdependence, and view it as being in their best longterm interests.For the channel to function as a vertical marketing system, one of the member firms must be acknowledged as the leader; typically the dominant firm, which can be expected to take a significant risk position and usually has the greatest relative power within the channel. An example of a vertical marketing system is that of franchising. The franchiser, usually on the basis of having a powerful brand or perhaps a patent/copyright, for a fee, allows franchisees to produce or distribute the product or service. The franchiser effectively c ontrols the channel, including aspects such as product ingredients, advertising and marketing, pricing, etc. through formal and legally enforceable agreements. Franchising is an example of what are termed contractual vertical marketing systems which we consider again shortly.Corporate vertical marketing is when a company owns two or more traditional levels of the channel. In many economies corporate vertical channels have arisen as a result of a desire for growth on the part of companies through vertical integration. Two types of vertical integration are possible with respect Channels of distribution and logistics 195 to the direction within which the vertical integration moves a company in the supply chain: when a manufacturer buys, say, a retail chain, this is referred to as forward integration with respect to the chain. Backward integration is moving upstream in the supply chain, e. g. when a retailer invests in manufacturing or a manufacturer invests in a raw material source.Alt hough the end result of such movements is a corporate vertical marketing channel, often the stimulus to such movement is less to do with channel economies and efficiencies, and more with control over access to supply or demand, entry into a profitable business or overall scale and operating economies. Much vertical integration activity which took place during the 1990s in many economies resulted in lower overall profitability levels, and in some cases, the demise of companies involved, as companies overextended themselves and/or moved into areas where they had little expertise. Because of this, many companies have now turned their attention towards contractual systems for achieving growth and more control through the vertical marketing system.Many of the large oil companies are examples of corporate vertical marketing. They prospect for oil, extract it, process it, distribute and retail it through their petrol stations. Other companies operate partial corporate vertical marketing sy stems in that they integrate only one way. Zara (the clothing retailer) is integrated vertically backward with manufacturing facilities. Firestone (the tyre manufacturer) on the other hand, is vertically integrated forward owning its own tyre retailers. Many companies formalize their obligations within channel networks by employing legitimate power as a means of control achieved by using contractual agreements.Nearly all transactions between businesses are covered by some form of contract, and as such the contractual agreement determines the marketing roles of each party within the contract. Indeed, the locus of authority usually lies with individual members. The most common form of contractual agreement are franchises and voluntary and co-operative groups. Franchises are where the parent company grants an individual person or relatively small company the right or privilege to do business in a prescribed manner over a certain time period in a specified place. The parent company is r eferred to as the franchiser (or franchisor) and may occupy any position in the channel network. The franchise retailer is termed the franchisee.There are four basic types of franchise system: n n n n Manufacturer/retailer franchise, e. g. service stations where most of the garage petrol stations such as Shell and Esso are franchisees of the large oil exploration and refining companies. Manufacturer/wholesaler franchise: e. g. Coca-Cola sell drinks they manufacture to franchised wholesalers, who in turn bottle and distribute soft drinks to retailers. This type of arrangement is common in the food and drinks markets with many of the large companies franchising part of their manufacturing and or wholesaling activities to others. The wholesaler/retailer franchise. Many retail chains are franchisees of large wholesalers.These wholesalers saw the value of securing a measure of control, and of course a share of the retail profits, from marketing their products and brands. The most notable example is ‘Spar’ which advertises itself as ‘Spar, your 8. 00 till late shop’, and of course all retail members must abide by this promise. The service/sponsor retailer franchise e. g. McDonald’s, Kentucky Fried Chicken, Subway, Car Rental companies like Avis and Hertz and services like DynoRod and Prontaprint. This is the best known and certainly most ubiquitous of franchising arrangements and it has enabled many organizations to rapidly expand their global operations. 196 Channels of distribution and logistics There are different types of franchise arrangement, e. g.McDonald’s insists that franchisees purchase from official suppliers; they provide building and design specifications, help locate finance for franchisees and impose quality standards to which each unit must adhere in order to hold its franchise. Rigorous inspection through ‘secret shoppers’ (explained in Chapter 12) ensures franchise ‘rules’ are being obeyed. Franchises share a set of common features and operating procedures: 1 2 3 4 A franchise essentially sells a nationally, or internationally, recognized trade name, process, or business format to the franchisee. The franchiser normally offers expert advice e. g. location selection, capitalization, operation and marketing. Most franchises operate a central purchasing system at national or international level to enable cost savings to be made at the individual franchise level.The franchise is subject to a contract binding both parties that normally requires the franchisee to pay a franchise fee and royalty fees to the franchiser, but the franchisee owns the business as opposed to being employed. The franchiser often provides initial and continuous training to the franchisee. 5 Contractual vertical marketing systems like franchising have been one of the fastest growing areas of marketing and distribution. Substantial advantages derive from the franchising system. From a system t hat essentially involves two independent parties voluntarily agreeing to contract with each other, advantages accrue to both the franchisee and franchiser. Advantages to the franchisee are: n n n n n n The franchisee gains the benefit of being able to sell a well-known product or service which has been market tested and known to work.The franchisee enjoys access to the knowledge, experience, reputation and image of the franchiser. Because of this the franchisee is able to enter a business much more easily than setting up from scratch. The learning curve is shortened, expensive mistakes can be avoided, and there is less chance of business failure. Although the franchisee has the backing of what is often the large organization of the franchiser, the franchisee is still essentially an independent business with all that this implies for motivation to succeed. The franchisee is often helped by national or international advertising and promotion by the franchiser which would be beyond the means of a small independent business.The franchisee enjoys the use of the franchiser’s trademark, continuous research and development and market information. The franchiser will normally provide a system of management controls such as accountancy, sales and stock control procedures. Advantages to the franchiser are: n Finding and recruiting a network of franchisees enables rapid growth as wider distribution can be achieved with less capital. Channels of distribution and logistics 197 n n n n The individual franchisee is more motivated than a hired manager might be. The franchiser secures captive outlets for products or services, especially in the case of trade name franchising and private labels. Franchise and royalty fees provide a regular stream of income for the franchiser.The terms of the franchise contract normally give the franchiser substantial control over how the franchise is operated and normally the franchiser can terminate a contract should the relationship turn out to be unsatisfactory. The costs of such terminations are likely to be less than if the franchiser was operating a corporate owned facility with staff on the payroll. Normally, terms and restrictions on location and sale of the business by the franchisee ensure that the franchiser is able to maintain territorial exclusivity for its franchisees. There are disadvantages, but the franchise relationship combines the strengths of both small and large scale businesses. The franchisee is the small business person who is able to respond to local market conditions and offer personal services to customers.The franchiser passes on economies of scale in national advertising and bulk purchasing. For a franchise to be successful both parties need to work towards a common goal and avoid conflicts which requires frequent and open communication between partners if the system is to meet changing market conditions while maintaining its integrity. What constitutes the main disadvantages of franchis ing depends from whose perspective we are looking; the franchisee or the franchiser. The main disadvantages of franchising from each perspective are: Disadvantages to franchiser: n The franchiser loses some control over the provision and marketing of the brand. Poor service on the part of the franchisee can result in problems for brand image. Ideas and techniques can be copied even if seemingly well protected by patents and copyright arrangements. n Some proportion of profit has to be foregone. n There may be less commitment and enthusiasm from the franchisee. n Often franchisees lack business skills or experience. Disadvantages to the franchisee: n lack of support from franchiser; n franchiser may go out of business; n lack of flexibility/scope to use initiative; n close control from franchiser. Franchising is not solely confined to consumer products like fast food. It is used for a wide range of products and services in both consumer and industrial markets. Voluntary and co-operat ive groups emerged in the 1930s as a response to competition from chain stores.The scope of co-operative effort has expanded from concentrated buying power to the development of programmes involving centralized consumer advertising and promotion, store location and layout, financing, accounting and a package of support services. 198 Channels of distribution and logistics Generally, wholesale sponsored voluntary groups have been more effective competitors than retail sponsored co-operative groups. Primarily this is because of the difference in channel organization between the two. In the former, a wholesaler can provide strong leadership, because it represents the locus of power within the voluntary system and this is normally supported by a brand name like ‘Spar’.In the latter, power is diffused throughout the retail membership and role specification and allocation of resources are more difficult to accomplish. The principal purpose here is in bulk purchasing. In volunt ary groups, retail members have relinquished some of their autonomy by making themselves highly dependent on specific wholesalers for expertise. In retail co-operative chains, individuals retain more autonomy and this tends to depend much less strongly on the supply unit for assistance and direction. This type of organization is not to be confused with the Co-operative movement that was founded in 1844 by the Rochdale, Lancashire, Society of Equitable Pioneers who were a group of 28 weavers and other workers.As mechanization of the Industrial Revolution pushed more and more skilled workers into poverty, tradesmen banded together to open their own store selling items they could not otherwise afford. Over four months they pooled together ? 28 of capital. They opened their store with a basic selection of dry goods and foodstuffs and quickly moved into higher quality unadulterated produce. They devised the internationally famous Rochdale Principles: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 open membership; democr atic control (one person, one vote); distribution of surplus in proportion to trade; payment of limited interest on capital; political and religious neutrality; cash trading (no credit); promotion of education.Administered vertical marketing systems (VMS) do not have the formal arrangements of a contractual system or the clarity of power dependence of a corporate system. It is a co-ordinated system of distribution channel organization in which the flow of products from the producer to the end user is controlled by the power and size of one member of the channel system rather than by common ownership or contractual ties. Member organizations acknowledge the existence of dependence and adhere to the leadership of the dominant firm, which may operate at any level in the channel. Large retail organizations like Marks & Spencer typify this system. In administered systems like Marks & Spencer, units can exist with disparate goals, but there is informal collaboration on inclusive goals.Dec ision making occurs by virtue of interaction between channel members in the absence of a formal inclusive structure. However, the locus of authority still remains with individual channel members. As in conventional channels commitment is selforiented and there is a minimum amount of system-wide orientation among the members. As McCammon1 observes: Manufacturing organizations . . . have historically relied on administrative expertise to coordinate reseller marketing efforts. Suppliers with dominant brands have predictably experienced the least difficulty in securing strong trade support, but many manufacturers with Channels of distribution and logistics 199 fringe’ items have been able to elicit reseller co-operation through the use of liberal distribution policies that take the form of attractive discounts, financial assistance, and various types of concessions that protect resellers from one or more of the risks of doing business. An example of a successful administered VMS in is that of the furniture/lifestyle retailer, IKEA who has developed close working relationships with its suppliers. Acting as the channel co-ordinator, IKEA is committed to cost-effective supply and their suppliers benefit from the channel leadership of an effective and marketing-oriented retailer. Administered VMS are one step removed from conventional marketing channels. In an administered system, co-ordination of marketing activities is achieved by the use of programmes developed by one or a limited number of firms.Successful administered systems are conventional channels in which the principles of effective inter-organizational management have been correctly applied. Before we discuss how such marketing channels are co-ordinated, it is important that we discuss their structure. STRUCTURE OF MARKETING CHANNELS The marketing channel has two basic aspects: 1 2 the placement of intermediary types of channel in relation to each other i. e. the order in which they occur; the number of different intermediary levels or stages in the channel i. e. how many different separate types of intermediary are involved, so types of intermediary and number of levels determine the structure of a marketing channel. There are several types of channel structure, dependent on the type of goods.An example of a structure for consumer goods such as food and clothing is shown in Figure 6. 2. This figure is based on three assumptions: 1 2 3 The channel consists of complete organizations. Manufacturers’ agents and selling agents are included with the merchants even though they do not take title to the goods. Physical movement follows exactly the movement of ownership. We must understand the underlying reasons for the emergence of channel structures. Four logical steps can be identified: 1 2 3 4 The efficiency of the process can be increased via an intermediary. Channel intermediaries arise to adjust the discrepancy of assortments through the performance of the sorting processe s.Marketing agencies remain together in channel arrangements to provide the routine of transactions. Channels exist to facilitate deliveries and to avoid inventory stock-outs. 200 Channels of distribution and logistics 1 M 2 M 3 M 4 M 5 M 6 M 7 M 8 M 9 M C W R A R W W A C W W C R W W W C C C R C R C R C R C M = Manufacturer W = Wholesaler A = Agent (sells for manufacturers) R = Retailer C = Consumer FIGURE 6. 2 A typical example of structure for consumer goods Rationale for intermediaries As numbers of transactions increase, the need for intermediaries becomes greater. The marketing channel is a ‘canal’ which contains the physical flow of products.Because of the complex array of intermediaries operating within a channel, which may be involved in one or all aspects of channel function, the channel may also be visualized as a chain-link arrangement where each intermediary unit is effectively a link. Manufacturers are dependent on the effectiveness of their intermediaries if their channels of distribution are to meet their marketing goals. Intermediaries of a channel specialize in more than one function. Their inclusion primarily depends on their superior efficiency in the performance of basic marketing tasks. Such intermediaries, through their experience, specialization, contacts and scale of operation, offer other channel members more than they can achieve on their own. However, this type of specialization leads to some important behavioural concepts. Position and role Each channel member chooses a position or location in the channel. Role’ refers to the functions and degree of performance expected of the firm filling a position. Channel intermediaries perform the distribution function at a lower unit cost than the manufacturer who is the intermediary most distanced from the consumer, and they balance the production efficiencies of the supplier to the purchasing needs of the customer. Another reason is to break down large volumes into smalle r quantities, termed ‘breaking bulk’, e. g. a furniture retailer places an order for 100 tables, but the individual buys only one. When we consider the selling process, the number of intermediaries can reduce the number of transactions Channels of distribution and logistics 201 ontained within the selling process. See Figure 6. 3. Figure 6. 3 shows that there are four manufacturers and ten retailers who buy goods from each manufacturer. Here the number of contact lines amounts to 40 (i. e. 4 10). If all four manufacturers sell to 10 retailers through one intermediary, the number of contacts is reduced to 14 (i. e. 4 10). The number of contacts increases as the number of intermediaries increases, e. g. when the number of wholesalers is increased to 2, contacts will increase from 14 to 28 (i. e. [4 2] [10 2]). Thus, greater numbers of intermediaries result in diminishing returns per contact. (a) Selling directly ManufacturersRetailers 40 contact lines (b) Selling through one wholesaler Manufacturers Wholesaler Retailers 14 contact lines (c) Selling through two wholesalers Manufacturers Wholesalers Retailers 28 contact lines FIGURE 6. 3 The economics of intermediary systems 202 Channels of distribution and logistics Assortment and sorting In addition to increasing the efficiency of transactions, intermediaries smooth the flow of goods and services by creating what economists refer to as ‘possession’, ‘place’ and ‘time’ utilities. This smoothing requires that intermediaries perform a sorting function to overcome the discrepancy that arises between goods produced by manufacturers and goods demanded by the consumer.In addition, intermediaries bring together a range of similar or related items into a large stock, thus facilitating the buying process. A supermarket will buy in thousands of lines to provide shoppers with choice, and a builders’ merchant will provide everything from sand and gravel to light fitt ings that the builder can use. In this way, intermediaries play an important role in facilitating the flow of products from the manufacturer to the consumer. Routine transactions The cost of distribution can be minimized if transactions are routinized. In effect, through routinization, a sequence of marketing agencies is able to hang together in a channel arrangement or structure.A good example is automatic ordering, whereby the cost of placing orders is reduced when retail inventory levels reach the necessary re-order point. Searching Buyers and sellers are often engaged in similar activities within the marketplace. There is a degree of uncertainty if manufacturers are unsure of customer wants and needs, and consumers are not always sure what they will find. In this respect, marketing channels facilitate the searching process in two ways: 1 2 Wholesale and retail institutions are organized by different product groups; for example, fashion, hardware, grocery. Many products are widel y available from wide ranging locations. FLOWS IN MARKETING CHANNELSWhen we discuss marketing flows, there will be times when the word ‘function’ could be used, but here we refer to marketing ‘flows’ in channels as a better method of describing movement. In this way, we can show that various intermediaries that make up a marketing channel are connected by several distinguishable types of flow, summarized in Figure 6. 4, which depicts eight universal flows. The figure shows that physical possession, ownership and promotion are typically forward flows from producer to consumer. Each of these moves is ‘down’ the channel; a manufacturer promotes the product to a wholesaler, who in turn promotes it to a retailer, and so on. Negotiation, financing and risking flows move in both directions, whereas ordering and payment are backward flows.Financing is the most important of these flows; at any one time, when stocks are being held by one member of the ch annel, financing is in operation. When a wholesaler takes ownership and physical Channels of distribution and logistics 203 Physical possession Ownership Promotion Producers Retailers Negotiation Financing Rising Ordering Payment Wholesalers Customers: household and industrial FIGURE 6. 4 Marketing flows in channels Woolly Thinking Under the auspices of the Confederation of British Wool Textiles (CBWT), groups of British wool textile manufacturers exchange information and ideas. The Confederation is organized into distinct groups in the industry with each group representing a particular stage in the manufacturing and processing of wool.For example, there is a group representing ‘Raw Fibre Producers’, another representing ‘Spinners’, another representing ‘Fabric Manufacturers’ and one representing the interests of ‘Dyers and Finishers’. possession of a portion of the output of a manufacturer, the wholesaler is essentially financing the manufacturer. This notion is apparent if the costs of stock are considered. Stock held in stores as dormant stock is ‘dead money’, but if this is freed via a wholesaler, this ‘dead money’ is available for reinvestment. The furniture industry exemplifies the flow. Traditional furniture retailers operating on a sold-order basis do not participate in the backward financing flow.However, ‘warehouse type’ furniture retailers participate in this flow directly, and receive benefits from manufacturers in the form of lower prices and preferential treatment. This backward flow of financing is not solely associated with stockholding, another example being prepayment for merchandise. The problem is that in the event of any downturn in sales the warehouse type retailer with large sums of money tied up in stock is very vulnerable to cash flow and liquidity problems. To underline this, blaming the downturn in the UK housing market in July 2009, the UKâ₠¬â„¢s second largest carpet retailer, Allied Carpets, called in the receiver. 204Channels of distribution and logistics Forward flow of financing is more common. All terms of sale, with the exception of cash on delivery and prepayment, may be viewed as elements of the forward flow of financing. In addition to these flows there is information flow. Typically, information regarding product attributes is passed ‘down’ the channel, often with the dominant channel member having greater influence on this function. Marketing information is passed ‘back’ up the channels. In addition, information flows horizontally, i. e. with intermediaries operating at the same level, such as fibre manufacturers, communicating for mutual benefit.CHANNEL CO-ORDINATION However well designed a marketing channel may be it is important that it is organized and coordinated, otherwise activities and flows will not operate effectively, and the full potential of the system will not be real ized. Emphasis should be placed on understanding behavioural dimensions of inter-organizational relationships, because through such understanding, the manager can organize, manipulate and exploit available resources. The long-term objective of channel management is to achieve, at a reasonable cost, the greatest possible impact at the end user level, so that individual members of the channel can obtain satisfactory returns (e. g. rofits, market share) as compensation for their specific contributions. The behaviour of intermediaries within any given structural arrangement should thus be directed towards achieving high yield performance. Once the marketing management of an organization isolates the market targets to attack, and the products and services which it must supply in order to satisfy needs and wants in those various segments, the question of how best to make products and services available for consumption arises. Figure 6. 5 identifies four major steps that represent the co-o rdination process. The first step is to determine the level of service outputs demanded by end users of the commercial channel system.Service outputs that are among the most significant in distribution are, for example, lot size. Some companies insist on a minimum order level. Under this limit they will not accept the order. In contrast, often smaller companies are unable or unwilling to supply orders over a certain size. A second type of service output is delivery or waiting time, or how long it takes from order to delivery. A third service output relates to market decentralization or spatial convenience, namely, to where the provider will deliver. For example, some suppliers will only deliver locally whereas at the other extreme some will undertake to deliver anywhere in the world. Finally, there is breadth and depth of product or service assortment.This refers to whether or not the provider is able to supply a full range of products and services or only a selected range, i. e. a ‘one -stop shopping’ facility. The second step involves identifying the marketing tasks that need to be carried out in order to achieve the service outputs, and which channel members have the capability to perform the tasks. Management must then determine whether, through the use of channel control strategies, they will be able to control the behaviour of existing channel members or be compelled to integrate channel flow vertically so the required service outputs are provided to end users. Channels of distribution and logistics 205 Step 1 Determine service output levels required by customersStep 2 Analyse the roles which channel members must perform to assure delivery of the required service outputs Step 3 Use economic and other power bases to motivate channel members to carry out their assigned roles Step 4 Devise mechanisms for dealing with conflicts that occur within the channel FIGURE 6. 5 Stages in the channel co-ordination process For example, if a desired level o f service output is that orders must be fulfilled within five working days then the channel and logistics system must be designed to reach this service level. If intermediaries in the channel are unwilling or unable to meet this service output then alternative channel arrangements must be found.Without effective channel management and control there is no guarantee that the desired service outcomes will be achieved, so a major issue in channel management relates to where, and to what extent, marketing flow participation should be assumed to generate the desired service outputs; e. g. if a car buyer needs finance, the manufacturer, the retailer or an outside intermediary should provide it, but lending services must be readily available if the consumer is going to feel comfortable in considering a specific purchase that requires finance. In a situation where no channel intermediary is willing to accept the risk of financing, the initial supplier may have to assume this, i. e. it would prefer to specialize in those flows that it can perform at a comparative advantage.The third step in the co-ordinative process is to determine which strategies should be used to achieve the desired results, irrespective of whether management decides to invest in integrating functions or whether it deals with independent companies. Essentially this is an issue of where and how ‘power’ is applied in the channel. Power is the ability to get somebody to do a task. In the context of a marketing channel it can be defined in terms of how one channel member can exert influence on another channel member. For example, due to their size and purchasing power, many retail multiples in the UK like Marks & Spencer are able to exercise substantial power over their suppliers.Power is the mechanism by which congruent and effective roles become specified, roles become realigned when necessary, and appropriate role performance is enforced. There are several bases of power, which include re ward, coercion and expertise. 206 Channels of distribution and logistics The fourth step involves setting up mechanisms to deal with conflict issues that may arise so that the channel will continue to provide the desired service outputs even if channel members disagree. Very often channel members perform unique roles. Thus, manufacturers specialize in production and national promotions, while retailers specialize in merchandising, distribution and promotion at a local level. This specialization means that channel members become reliant on each other to achieve objectives.There has to be co-operation between channel members, as without it, the task will not be completed. Such co-operation does not always come easy and needs to be cultivated. CHANNEL CONFLICT There is a danger that there will be conflicts of interest and distribution channels will exhibit levels of conflict. For example, suppliers may want to deliver weekly to a retailer, but the retailer wants to hold less stock, so may want daily deliveries. Ideally, channel members should attempt to coordinate their objectives, plans and activities with other intermediaries such that performance of the total distribution system to which they belong is enhanced.Evidence supports the view that such integrated activity throughout the length of the marketing channel is rare and channel participants are not too concerned with transactions that occur between each of the various channel links. Channel intermediaries are more concerned about dealings between channel members immediately adjacent to themselves, from whom they buy, and to whom they sell. Channel intermediaries do not function as component members of a distribution system, but operate independently, making decisions concerning their own methods of operation, functions performed and clients served as well as deciding their own objectives, policies and programmes.Therefore, a marketing channel should be a set of interlocking and mutually dependent elements and it is in the interests of all channel members for there to be a substantial degree of co-operation, but an almost inevitable feature is potential conflict between members which should be taken into account when making channel arrangements. It is possible that healthy competition can lead to conflict and management should seek ways to reduce this conflict. Conflict in distribution channels can occur in different forms as follows: 1 2 Horizontal conflict – is related to competition among similar types of intermediaries at the same level in the channel – e. g. two household textile stores in competition with each another.Intertype conflict – refers to competition among different types of intermediaries at the same level in the channel. This kind of competition has intensified since the advent of ‘scrambled merchandising’ by retailers (where retailers add new product lines that are unrelated to their normal lines of business) e. g. supermarkets hav e added homewares and clothing to their product lines, offering consumers a wider product range and attaining higher margins. Intertype conflict is significant as it reflects a way in which industries remain efficient and respond to changing market conditions. Vertical conflict – refers to competition among different levels in a channel.Such problems can be damaging to existing co-operative relationships e. g. in recent years some of the major car producers have been in conflict with their distributors over matters like pricing and discount policies, stockholding levels and exclusivity agreements. 3 Channels of distribution and logistics 207 Stress and conflict can be in a dormant state; times of change cause existing stress to peak, leading to hostility among channel members. Some conflict is inevitable in channels and may even be positive in that it can prompt needed changes. The earlier example regarding retailers selling manufacturers’ brands at lower prices than m anufacturers wish is an example of vertical conflict.Selling of brands like Levis and Calvin Klein at prices lower than those recommended by manufacturers has given rise to vertical conflict in the channel. Other examples of this type of conflict in the UK recently have been the selling of discounted books and discounted pharmaceutical products by the large retail supermarket groups. Goal incompatibility Channel members appear to share a common goal – maximizing the efficiency and effectiveness of the total system. However, each firm exists as a separate legal entity, each with its own employees, owners and other interested parties who help shape its goals and strategies. Some firms’ goals may be incompatible with the aims and objectives of other channel members.This incompatibility can be a primary cause of stress which will ultimately result in conflict. The distribution of channel profits is a typical example. Each institution will desire the highest possible profit for the whole channel and the natural tendency will be towards co-operation to achieve maximum profit levels. However, each individual firm can be expected to desire the largest obtainable share of total channel profits. The predictable result is conflict over the allocation process. Even if goals are compatible, there may be disagreements about methods employed: all channel members may agree that increases in volume of a product are desirable, but may disagree on the means employed to accomplish it.Wholesalers may desire more shelf space for better positioning of products in retail stores; retailers may feel that more advertising and promotional effort by the manufacturer would accomplish the objective of an increase in sales. The result is conflict over which method to use. Position, role and domain incongruence In a channel consisting of a manufacturer using only wholesalers who sell to retailers, there will be a realignment of the roles and domains of each party. By serving lar ge retailers direct, positions will be re-specified. Changes in position specification, or poorly defined positions, can precipitate conflict among channel members, so the manufacturer must anticipate and understand the expected behaviour of such members. In situations where consensus does not exist, conflict can be expected.Because each role represents a code of conduct defining the channel member’s expected contribution, adequate performance is critical to maintaining harmony within the channel system. Inadequate performance, or failure to behave in the prescribed manner, frustrates attempts by one firm to predict what the other will do and such frustration is a major cause of channel conflict. Conflict may also arise when there is lack of agreement concerning who is the channel leader (termed the ‘channel captain’). If channel members disagree on the domain of firms in the system, there will be conflict and an inability to achieve goals. If domains overlap, an d two or more firms lay claim to the same functions, products or customers, disagreement might lead to hostility.The conflict between car producers and their distributors just described, in part stems from the issue of 208 Channels of distribution and logistics who controls the channel. In the past it has been the car companies who have been channel captains but market and legislative changes have shifted the balance more towards distributors, giving rise to conflict. Communication breakdown Communication breakdowns may cause conflict in two ways: 1 The failure of one firm to pass on vital information to other channel members. A manufacturer wishing to maintain a competitive advantage may decide not to announce a new product until a national distribution programme has been developed.Retailers, on the other hand, need information about new products as soon as possible to prepare their own strategy for the introductory period. Distortion within the message process is called ‘noi se’ that often arises from confused language nuances. When channel members attach different meanings to language and terminology (e. g. if their roles are unclear and confused) stress results and there is potential for conflict. Speculation surrounding the health of Apple boss Steve Jobs caused problems for the company and its distributors. In January 2009 the annual MacWorld conference normally used to announce new products and developments was cancelled.This caused speculation in the trade about whether or not Jobs would continue. The problem was not so much Jobs’ illness bur rather the rumours about it. In July 2009 it was announced that Jobs was making a good recovery from a liver transplant. 2 Communication breakdowns are common in specialist business areas. Noise arises when functional specialists develop terminology that means little to those outside that business environment. Unclear communication with non-specialists can play a part in developing conflict so t he specialist should ensure that communications have been understood. Differing perceptions of reality Different solutions to mutual problems can lead to confliction behaviour.Even when channel members have a strong desire to co-operate and goal agreement exists, conflict can occur when perceptions of the real facts differ. Bare Bellies Update Dear all, further to my e-mail yesterday, I’ve had clarification that a new system for producing bare belly information will be in place. Please note there will no longer be blank bare belly sheets available in departments. Confused? So was this organization’s staff who received this e-mail. The e-mail was from the organization’s publicity department and was sent to all staff. ‘Bare bellies’ is a term used by printers to denote blank sheets to be printed on. The e-mail related to the production of company promotional material. Channels of distribution and logistics 209Each channel member brings to the relation ship different backgrounds and prejudices; facts are likely to be interpreted according to prior experience. All members may agree that the channel is not functioning as effectively as desired; each channel member may perceive a different reason for this lack of effectiveness. Manufacturers may feel that a retailer’s lack of stock is due to failure to maintain adequate safety stock levels and realistic reorder points. The retailer may feel that inventory policies are realistic and that the problem is caused by the manufacturer’s inability to meet scheduled delivery times. Each party is interpreting the situation based upon experience and natural prejudices associated with its own position and role. Ideological differencesSometimes there may be a fundamental ideological conflict in channels which stems from big business and small business perceptions of management, particularly concerning the appropriate level of sales effort. For example, a manufacturer may be so satis fied with the performance of a wholesaler in a given territory that pressure is exerted on the wholesaler to expand the line of products on offer, whereas the wholesaler may be satisfied with allowing the business to continue to run in its present form. In this way, pressures exerted by the manufacturer will lead to stress and conflict in the relationship. If this is an established channel, it is in the interests of everybody to settle the dispute or misunderstanding quickly.There are several methods of resolving conflict, and it is a task of management to seek ways in which to manage it to avoid it becoming dysfunctional and to harness the energies in conflict situations to produce solutions. Depending on which underlying cause is identified, different strategies can be employed in isolation. Another important factor in the resolution of the conflict will be the weight of power of the channel member seeking to resolve the conflict. Problem solving Adopting superordinate goals is a method that refers to goals that are desired by all members caught up in the conflict. Often such goals cannot be achieved by individual channel members, as concerted efforts of all parties are required.Such disputes become more pronounced when the channel is confronted by an external threat, and conflict only dissipates when alternative channel systems emerge. The threat to existing channel members of new channel arrangements for car retailing in the UK has brought about a reduction in conflict between traditional channel members. Car manufacturers and dealers were challenged by the fact that consumers were increasingly purchasing new cars through a variety of new channels including sourcing them from countries where prices might be lower, the growth of ‘car hypermarkets’ where cars are sourced on the ‘grey market’ and through the Internet.The result has been for existing traditional channel members to adopt superordinate goals and this has resulted in a r eduction of conflict between them in an effort to survive. Permanent conflict resolution requires an integration of the needs of both sides to the dispute so they find a common goal without sacrificing their basic economic and ethical principles. The problem is developing a common goal on which all parties agree. 210 Channels of distribution and logistics A solution exists to alleviate communications noise in distribution channels. A more efficient flow of information and communications in channels permits members to find solutions to their conflict based on common objectives. Channel communication efforts should be designed to decrease or avoid conflict, e. g. sing sales representatives to convey information from wholesalers or retailers implies that the manufacturer is trying to encourage the attainment of both individual and common goals; the function of the sales representative in such cases is that of ‘problem solver’. Persuasion This implies that institutions invo lved draw on their leadership potential. If effective channel management is to be achieved, it is often the case that there will be a need to locate an institution or an agency within the system that is willing to assume this role. Channel leadership is the intentional use of power to affect the behaviour of other channel members and cause them to act in a manner that contributes to the maintenance or achievement of a desired level of performance.Often channel control results from channel leadership and like channel power, the level of control achieved by one firm over others in a channel may be issue specific, e. g. while the manufacturer may have control over pricing, retailers may have control over stock levels. Whether or not control can be exerted depends on the power base of each channel member. By its nature, persuasion involves communication between conflicting parties. Emphasis is on influencing behaviour to resolve conflict; the primary intention is to avoid or reduce conf lict concerned with domain or sphere of influence. Persuasion allows members to reach a consensus resulting in agreement without formal bargaining. Some years ago a well-known company launched its own brand of cola. The new brand was eagerly tocked by many leading grocery supermarkets who were persuaded to make space for the new brand on their shelves. Inevitably this meant less shelf space for existing brands including some of the best known cola brands in the world. As if this loss of shelf space was not bad enough, the world’s leading cola brand claimed bitterly that at first glace the new Virgin cola looked remarkably like their own cola brand. They subsequently asked Virgin to withdraw the new brand in its present form and at the same time asked their supermarket customers not to stock it. Needless to say, there were protracted discussions, but after a little time all parties were persuaded to come to a compromise which avoided costly litigation and loss of face.The new cola was altered slightly in appearance, some of the lost shelf space was restored and the new brand gradually made inroads into the market. Bargaining/negotiations The difference between bargaining and persuasion is that in the bargaining process stress continues to exist in the system long after agreement is reached. In negotiation, no attempt is made to fully satisfy a channel member. Instead, the objective is to reach an ‘accommodation’ to stop conflict among members. Such a compromise may resolve the episode, but not necessarily the fundamental stress over which the conflict erupted. If stress continues, it is likely that some issue will cause conflict again at some later date. Compromise is a means by which bargains can be reached in the channel.Each party gives up something it desires to prevent or end conflict. Often compromise is necessary to reach domain consensus where persuasion and negotiation draw on abilities of parties involved to communicate. Channels o f distribution and logistics 211 Politics Politics refers to resolution of conflict involving new organizations in the agreement-reaching process. Mediation involves a third party, usually to secure settlement of a dispute by persuading the parties to continue negotiation or consider recommendations made by the mediator. Mediation involves understanding the conflicting views of parties in such a way that opportunities are perceived that otherwise may have been missed.The fact that solutions are being offered by a mediator, i. e. somebody external to the dispute, can often lead to a settlement if both parties deem the solutions acceptable. Effective mediation keeps the parties together and clarifies facts so the communication process does not break down. While mediation offers solutions to disputes, channel members are not obliged to accept the solutions. In arbitration, however, the solution suggested by the third party is binding upon the conflicting parties. Arbitration can be com pulsory or voluntary, and when it is the former, parties are required by law to submit their dispute to the third party and be bound by the decision.Voluntary arbitration is a similar process whereby parties are bound by the decision, but the dispute is settled voluntarily. The question of relying on law enforcement to settle disputes in distribution is imprecise as it is doubtful whether solutions enforced by law can be applicable to future channel disputes in different circumstances. In purely domestic channel management, these mechanisms are not greatly used because of the inability to find a neutral third party whose decision will be accepted by everybody involved in the dispute. However, arbitration is a normal and accepted part of international channel management and is part of the contractual agreement between the parties in channel activities.For example, if an exporter feels that an overseas agent has not fulfilled the terms of an agreement between him or herself and the pr incipal, but the two parties cannot agree as to the remedies for this, then normally the terms and conditions for instituting an arbitration process are written into the original contract and will be instituted to resolve the problem. Diplomacy Channel diplomacy is the normal method by which inter-organizational relations are conducted, adjusted and managed by ‘ambassadors’, envoys or other persons operating at the boundaries of member organizations. Normally channel members rely on diplomatic procedures, especially in nonintegrated systems. Channel diplomats should be the ‘eyes and ears’ of the firms they work for, and should report anything that may be of interest. Such ‘diplomats’ are commonplace in distribution channels at executive level.In this way, the diplomat’s power base is such that it is obvious to the parties with whom the diplomat will interact. Effective channel management strategies provide for more rational decision maki ng within the channel. THE DYNAMIC NATURE OF CHANNELS Marketing is characterized by constant change, and there is a need for the marketer to adapt to these changes, making marketing channels subject to change and innovation. Channels represent a 212 Channels of distribution and logistics dynamic area of marketing as they are constantly evolving to meet changing customer and market needs which reflect underpinning wider changes and trends in demography and lifestyles. Marketers must be aware of the changing nature of channels and respond to them.An example of recent developments that are indicative of the innovation and changing nature of this area is the growth of multi-channel systems of direct marketing and Internet marketing which are dealt with in Chapter 10. The growth of multi-channels Companies now use a variety of channel arrangements to reach their target customers. Once, companies tended to use only one type of channel configuration in their marketing; now they use several . The use of multi-channel systems can be for a number of reasons: n n n to increase market coverage by reaching new customers; to reduce costs of selling to certain customers where for example such customers require less service than that provided through the company’s normal channels; to achieve a more customized service to particular customers than would be available through the company’s normal channels.In multi-channel marketing, a company might sell to one group of customers using telephone selling and no intermediaries, while another target group may be marketed to through a network of dealers, since these customers require after-sales service and technical advice. Although there are advantages to be gained through using several different channel configurations to different target customers, multi-channels can give rise to increased costs if not controlled. They can also give rise to problems of conflict between different channel members where several channels a re used, particularly where one type of channel member feels that their contractual rights are being infringed. An example is where the marketer uses a system of ‘appointed’ distributors for the company’s products.In return for being granted ‘exclusive’ distribution rights in a particular g

Rock Music and Free Time

Without music life would be a mistake! My hobbies are singing and dancing. Regarding the most popular hobbies, people like playing basketball or football, reading, stamp collecting, etc. However, I love to listen to music and also to sing. I have a large and superb collection of tracks and I listen to all kinds of music. My collection ranges from hip hop music to rock and from blues music to rap. My hobby is listening to these songs carefully and then to learn them. I sit with a piece of paper and a pen while I write down the lyrics of the songs that I hear.Then I hum along and soon I know the tunes too. I switch off the Black Berry recorder and then I pretend to be the singer myself. I sing the song exactly it was sung by the playback singer. I sometimes succeed and I sometimes fail. Once I feel that I sing perfectly I tape my own voice. When I listen to the recording I am objective and try to find my faults in singing. This helps me to improve my singing and I feel confident and th rilled. Whenever I go to a party, my friends persuade me to dance. Once I begin, the party livens up, people join in and the place is filled with the sound of music.I feel proud of myself and my friends also praise me because they feel that I become the life of the party. I listen to music and I sing every day when I go to school or when I have a free time in school. My hobby makes me happy and at least brings joy to my sister and friends. In my opinion, it is necessary that everybody have a hobby. It educates people; they give their pleasure, and help them to use his free time fruitfully. If a person has no hobby, he will turn him free time into something useful? From my point of view, if I were you I would listen to music every day.

Merchant of Venice by William Shakespeare Essay

Mercy is compassionate treatment, while justice is the administration of law. Justice may not necessary include mercy. Mercy is natural. Portia says that the â€Å"quality of mercy is not strained†, it is not a forced effort but something that one already possesses. Mercy cannot be forced by anyone; it is something that one must come up within himself. Like how â€Å"gentle rain† cannot be created artificially, it is sincere. Mercy also benefits the merciful. Portia says that â€Å"earth power doth then show likest God’s when mercy seasons justice†, implying that man can only become like God when he is merciful. Mercy is something that is powerful. Portia says, â€Å"scepter[s] shows the force of temporal power†¦but mercy is above this sceptered sway†, symbolizing that mercy is more powerful than mere symbols of earthly power, i.e. the crown and the scepter. Mercy is forgiving. Portia points out that God is merciful, and forgives us for our sins, and â€Å"in the course of justice none of us should see salvation†. Only with the mercy of God would they be delivered. Mercy is reciprocal, and â€Å"twice blest†, bringing good tidings to both â€Å"him that gives and him that takes†. Portia says that mercy is divine, as it â€Å"droppeth†¦from heaven† and â€Å"an attribute to God himself†. Mercy is a heavenly quality, a sacred virtue and he who has this characteristic becomes â€Å"likest God†. It is like â€Å"gentle rain from heaven†. Mercy is fair treatment to others. For example, the Duke asks Shylock to â€Å"forgive a moiety of the principal†, sympathising with Antonio as he has lost money in his wrecked investments. Justice is strict and condemning, as the place where justice is practised is  described as the â€Å"strict court of Venice†. Portia asks Shylock to â€Å"mitigate†¦thy plea†, exemplifying how justice is indeed harsh. Justice is earth-bound, dispensed and followed by Man. â€Å"No power in Venice† can alter justice, meaning that justice can be changed by heaven’s mercy. Justice is something that follows laws strictly, and is blind. Even as Shylock says, â€Å"What judgment shall I fear, doing no wrong,† he emphasizes how justice is strictly based on laws, as he has nothing to fear despite plotting against Antonio’s life as the law says he is entitled to. Justice is one-sided, and that it clearly defines a loser and winner. Shylock, who thinks that justice and mercy cannot be reconciled, decides the fate of Antonio, saying, â€Å"it is his humour†, as he has lost three thousand ducats in the deal. Justice is inflexible. As Portia states, â€Å"there is no power in Venice that can alter a decree established†, she is also hinting to Shylock that heavenly mercy is the only thing that can change justice, and it is unchangeable otherwise. Mercy is something that enhances justice, and â€Å"mercy seasons justice†. Too much mercy spoils justice, as it will thus become too lenient, but without mercy, justice is bland.

The video The End of the Line investigates the issue of over fishing Essay

The video The End of the Line investigates the issue of over fishing of fish species due to illegal catches and surpassed fishing quotas - Essay Example Eventually, the effects of overfishing would be briefly discussed before touching on the economic issues of overfishing. According to the film, commercial overfishing actually started about 50 years ago when advances in technology enabled various fishermen to increase their catch magnanimously. The conventional trawlers and small fishing boats were replaced by huge factory ships which have the capacity to freeze or tin fishes up to the time that their holds are full. Economies of scale are practiced as early as this when these huge factory ships invested the necessary funds to ensure that their catches should be maximized before they would return to the respective ports. Overfishing has debilitating effects on all marine life. As the film emphasized, it initially examined the worrisome extinction of the bluefin tuna and other big fishes due to the increasing demand for sushi. The decrease in the pool of big fishes has the repercussion of increasing the population of jellyfishes. The economic implications of an overpopulation of jellyfishes are follows: there are more losses in terms of revenues for the fishing industry; without fishes there is rampant unemployment; the jellyfishes endangers fishermen and beach goers; and the presence of jellyfishes cause a decline in the prices of the remaining fishes caught. According to Kelly (2010), â€Å"the existence of jelly fish has changed consumer preferences, concerns about the quality of fish has led to a decline in the price of fish, this has resulted as consumers demand less fish given that they fear that the fish may be contaminated with sting venom from jelly fish, therefore this has resulted into a loss of revenue for fishermen who have now decided to exit the fishing industry.† The film has warned viewers that â€Å"scientists predict that if we continue fishing as we are now, we will see the end of most seafood by 2048† (The Film, n.d. par. 8). This

Reflective Communication Audit Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Reflective Communication Audit - Essay Example It determines what is working well, what is not, and what might work better if adjustments are made†. An organization communicates with its stakeholders and public in variety of situations. The strategy of the company in respect of all manners of communication, oral, written or actions needs to be designed to convey its philosophy and values to the stakeholders and public. The purpose of this study is to reflect upon and analyse the communication practices, processes and issues that are evident in TESCO, which is the third largest retail chain in the worth with its head quarters in the UK. Organisational background Started as grocery retail in the UK, TESCO has transformed into a multinational company over the period of time, with retailing in clothing, furniture, electronic goods and many other goods including petrol which are regularly bought by households or businesses. It has also entered into financial services, software and telecom. The company is listed in LSE and includ ed in FTSE 100 Index. Therefore, communication in such a geographically and functionally diversified company needs to be structured to achieve the objectives or goals with limited misunderstanding and conflicts. The slogan â€Å"The Tesco Way† seeks to portray the manner in which the company wants the public to remember its philosophy and values, and in a sense, it is a message to the public. The company’s innovations like installation of camera and self-service tills in the stores could be considered as reactions in tune with the technological developments. Also, these changes communicate a message to the customers about TESCO’s desire to improve the level of service. The Balanced-scorecard system implemented in TESCO unites the group’s resources at all levels. Communication audit would be useful and effective in monitoring of the operations including risk management on a balanced basis in relation to various divisions and the stakeholders could be augme nted. According to the TESCO’s website, the  Ã¢â‚¬ËœVision’  is for Tesco to be: Most highly valued by the customers we serve, the communities in which we operate, our loyal and committed staff and our shareholders A growth company A modern and innovative company Winning locally, applying our skills globally This vision statement and one of its stated strategies ‘to put our responsibilities to the communities we serve at the heart of what we do’ seeks to communicate its commitment to its stakeholders which includes community as well. The intense competition in the retail sector in the UK and globally necessitates advanced planning and formulation of effective strategies in achieving its corporate objectives. The expansion of the business into new products and services calls for coordination of its various activities at all levels. It also underlines the need for an integrated communication policy for a sustained development in the long run. Communicati on in an organization has several dimensions and is complicated unless it is coordinated with high standards of efficiency and audited on a regular basis. Communication audit The standard of living of the people has been increasing over the period of time which results into changes in tastes and fashions and shorter product life cycle. This is an important factor especially in retail business of TESCO and Communication audit would be useful in evaluating the communication strategies adopted by the company to make

Audit risk analysis of a company Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Audit risk analysis of a company - Essay Example This is mainly due to an increase in taxes paid by the company. The Group might have been induced to manipulate the taxes because previous tax losses available for claim might be expiring this year. Exceptional items were more than the current year in the previous year, yet there was no taxation charge in the previous year (Scapa Group, 2013a). The calculation of the tax over the exceptional items has to be checked in detail. The operating profits increased by 14 % and the tax charge on them increased by 32%. The application of the new (changed) tax rate over the profits has to be reviewed. Classification of the exceptional items is also of high risk. The rationale for such classification of exceptional items has to be inquired for. Scapa has disposed off one of its subsidiaries and faced pressures from European side (Scapa Group, 2013b). In order to present a better picture, Scapa might have engaged in showing a better Trading profit to Revenue ratio. This ratio is 6.5%, which is 1.1% better than the previous year ratio. Had exceptional items been included in trading profit, the ratio would have come down to 6% showing just 0.5 % improvements with respect to previous year ratio. Other Receivables have decreased by 98.5 % from $19.6 mn to $0.3 mn. This variation is mainly because of the re-classification of the assets of the Georgia subsidiary (Scapa Group, 2013c). This amount pertained to the insurance claim. The status of the claim and its valuation is a critical matter. It might be possible that a claim might have decreased, but it is transferred at the amount of the opening balance. Moreover, this liability is discounted at risk free interest rate of 3.35% (Scapa Group, 2013d). The assumption on the basis of which this rate is taken has to be reviewed. Change in rate may change the valuation of the insurance claim. Secondly, the discounted asset has not been unwound by the

Sexual studies biology assignment 1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Sexual studies biology assignment 1 - Essay Example Hormonal changes The menstrual cycle is determined by the functioning of four organs namely; the hypothalamus, the anterior pituitary gland, the uterus and the ovaries. It consists of phases identified as the follicular, ovarian and luteal. The beginning of the cycle is marked by a decrease in estrogen and progesterone levels. These are primary female hormones. This decrease stimulates the hypothalamus to produce Follicle Stimulating Hormone Release Factor (FSHRF). The FSHRF triggers the anterior pituitary gland to produce Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH). FSH is responsible for the release of estrogen in the ovaries which leads to the formation of the Graafian follicles in the cortex of the ovaries. These follicles are cells which cannot be fertilized. Increasing levels of estrogen cause the growth of uterine wall in preparation for possible implantation of the fetus after fertilization. This marks the follicular phase (Ferin, Jewelewicz, and Warren 5). The ovarian phase begins wi th the production of Luteinizing Hormone Releasing Factor (LHRF). This is initiated by the hypothalamus in response to low progesterone levels. LHRF then activates the production of Luteinizing hormone in the anterior pituitary gland. This hormone causes the production of progesterone from the ovaries. ... The luteal phase is characterized by the change of color to yellow of Graafian follicles to form the corpus luteam. The hormone progesterone also called the hormone of pregnancy is identified as responsible for this. The hormone further leads to the thickening of the uterus lining and increased blood supply in readiness for possible fertilization. If fertilization does not occur, progesterone levels start to drop. This decrease and eventual decline causes the shedding of the uterine wall, tearing of blood vessels and ejection of the contents through the vaginal tract. This is menstruation and marks the end of the cycle. The low levels of progesterone and estrogen effectively stimulate the hypothalamus to begin the next cycle (Ferin, Jewelewicz, and Warren 10). Fertile period of the cycle The period of the menstrual cycle when fertilization is most likely is identified as mid way through the cycle. A female whose cycle takes twenty eight days for example would be fertile on the fourte enth day. This is when ovulation takes place. The fertile egg (ovum) has a lifespan of twenty four hours and the fertile period lasts as much. The male sperm however has a longer lifespan of three to five days once released into the female. This means sperms released three to five days before ovulation can fertilize the egg. The twenty four hours immediately after ovulation however remains the most fertile period (Edin, Golanty, and Brown 170). Physical and emotional changes during cycle The hormonal variations during the cycle are identified as the cause of physical and emotional changes over the period. Studies show that contraction of the uterus (cramps) is inevitable. Lower back pain, fatigue and pelvic

Pepsi co Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Pepsi co - Essay Example Later the company was purchased by an individual named Charles Guth who already owned a candy producing business recognized as Loft (Pepsico.com, 2015). Guth later merged both the companies and started selling Pepsi-Cola in his own stores that were developed to sell candy. The company’s name was once again altered to Pepsi Co. when the company experienced a merger with Frito-Lay. Pepsi Co. no longer only deals in the sale of soft drinks and has expanded its business in various areas of food production and processing. It sells several carbonated drinks under its name such as Pepsi and Mountain Dew and it even sells several soft drinks for people who are concerned with their weight and diet (Pepsico.com, 2015). It has even been producing and distributing energy drinks as well as sports drinks and is even serving the community with food items such as Lay’s potato chips as well as Cheetos. The company is operational throughout the world such as in European as well as Asian regions and is one of the most profitable

Business strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 4

Business strategy - Essay Example In order to formulate and evaluate new prospective business strategies of the company, one needs to analyze the internal and external audit results of the organization (McEachern, 2012). Cath Kidston has a high brand value in the global market. The company has a long learning curve in business and owns a considerable share of industry demand. The products offered by the company are rare, unique and non imitable in nature. The aggregate revenue and economic surplus of the organization is steadily increasing over time. In 2013, the gross sale of the organization was worth  £100 million (Cathkidston, 2014). The organization is experiencing increasing profit and revenue in both domestic and foreign markets. After growth of internet penetration rate in all the countries around the world, Cath Kidston Ltd has successfully enhanced the volume of its e-commerce sales (Cathkidston, 2014). The online retailing stores of the company are able to offer cost effective services to a larger strength of prospective buyers. Cath Kidston owns a strong supply chain management system. However, the products offered by the company are primarily targeted towards the young and middle aged women. Cath Kidston’s products are popular for its unique floral designs. The case study claims that the company manufactures women accessories such as hand bags and home ware products (Cathkidston, 2014). The company faces certain delivery and product quality related problems in its online trade. The foreign business of Cath Kidston is more prosperous than its native business status. The company has relinquished majority of its stake to a private equity firm, TA Associates. Cath Kidston is the owner of only 23% stake of the Kidston Limited (Cathkidston, 2014). The company sold majority stakes because of financial crisis in the business. The company will not be

A research analysis on American Impressionists painter Mary Cassatt's Paper

A analysis on American Impressionists painter Mary Cassatt's life, work, technique and media style - Research Paper Example The purpose of this paper is to explore four pieces of Cassatt’s work in detail to fully understand the techniques and media styles used within these paintings. To explore further meaning from Cassatt’s work, a brief overview of her life and the culture in which she was producing art will be given. This exploration will add contextual depth to the analysis of Cassatt’s work, as an artist cannot be separated from their environment when exploring their work. Life of Mary Cassatt Mary Cassatt was born in what is now Pittsburg in 1844 into a wealthy family (McKown 89). Her father was a stockbroker and her mother also came from a banking family, meaning that the family did not have economic problems and allowed Cassatt to explore artistic options that may not have been open to many at the time. As a result of her mother’s wealth, Cassatt had a strong and well-educated female role model in her life, again allowing her to develop free from many of the constraints on women during the 19th century (Streissguth 5). Although living in the United States officially, Cassatt’s family believed that travel was extremely important and thus Cassatt had exposure to many of the European capital cities (such as Rome, Paris and Berlin) during her early life (Streissguth 8), which may have shaped a lot of her work. It was in Paris that Cassatt became exposed to many of the Old Masters, and became familiar with the works of Degas and Pissarro, both of whom would later play important roles in her artistic development (Streissguth 9). Later in life, Cassatt attended the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, determined to make art into a career (Frank 86). Although her family was slightly disapproving and most of the women at the time did not pursue careers, Cassatt studied here from 1861 to 1865 (Frank 86). After this period of study, Cassatt moved to Paris (with female chaperones). Although not allowed to study art officially (as a woman), Cassatt di d have access to some of the masters who lived and taught in the city and was allowed to be privately educated in this sense (McKown 91). In 1868 the piece â€Å"A Mandolin Player† was accepted for display by the Paris Salon, an extremely important honor for artists at the time (McKown 5). However, the French art scene was radically changing and much of Cassatt’s work was still painted in a traditional style, leaving this early honor not much replicated (McKown 5). She moved back to America, again not having much success with her artwork until attracting the attention of the Archbishop of Pittsburgh, who commissioned paintings from Italy and thus sending Cassatt back to Europe (Frank 86). It was after this return to Europe that Cassatt really began to enjoy some financial success from her paintings. In the first seven years of this return, Cassatt always had a piece of artwork for display at the Paris Salon, a great mark of success (Frank 86). She also began to travel to Spain, finding that many of the female artists who were on display in the art world were often so only because of their connections and flirtations (Streissguth 32). After her successful seven years, she had entries rejected from the Salon but was invited to learn about Impressionism by Degas, who

Atticus Finch - To Kill a Mockingbird Essay Example for Free

Atticus Finch To Kill a Mockingbird Essay Throughout chapters 1-17 in To Kill A Mockingbird, Atticus Finch is shown as a very courageous and non-judgemental person. At times in the book he is also a very caring father but he can be strict at times. His name, Atticus is also a very polite man and always shows courtesy to the people he meets. Many people that live in Maycomb know Atticus is a gentleman and is very polite. He also has a conscience when he says that if he didn’t defend a Negro then he would be ashamed and wouldn’t be able to hold his head up in town. Harper Lee portrayed Atticus as a very courageous man. Atticus is courageous because he takes up a case no one else dares to take, the Tom Robinson case. He was willing to risk his honour and dignity to help the poorly accused black man. Although he gets a lot of abuse from various people, for example Mrs Dubose when she says, â€Å"Atticus is a nigger-lover†, he still doesn’t step down from the case and ignores people. He even put his Children in the way when Scout nearly gets in to a fight against Cecil Jacobs when Cecil Jacobs says that â€Å"Scout Finch’s daddy defends niggers†. Scout even takes abuse from her own family when her cousin, Francis, says that Atticus is a â€Å"nigger-lover† which really puts Scout on edge and she starts a fight with Francis. Atticus is also a very non-judgemental person and will always look at things from both sides of the story. In chapter 3 Atticus says, â€Å"You never really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view until you climb into his skin and walk around in it†. Here, Atticus is saying that you can’t judge something until you see things from their point of view, until you see what they’re experiencing. Atticus is a very caring father but a strict one too. He is very caring when Scout comes home from her first day in school and complains that Miss Caroline (the teacher) doesn’t want Atticus and Scout reading together any more. Atticus decides to make a deal with Scout, â€Å"If you’ll concede the necessity of going to school, we’ll go on reading every night just as we always have†. This shows that he cares about Scout concerns and decides to make a deal to make her happy. Although caring he is also a strict father and when Jem loses her cool and destroys Mrs Dubose’s flowers he makes Jem go back and apologies. To do something like this to a sick lady is inexcusable. I strongly advise you to go down and have a talk with Mrs Dubose†. As well as a good father he is also a very polite and well-mannered man. For example, in the court trial with Mayella, Atticus wouldn’t call her Mayella but Miss Mayella but Mayella took it like Atticus was mocking her. Judge Taylor had to calm her down by saying, â€Å"Mr Finch is always courteous to everybody†. This is saying that Atticus is always polite and courteous to everyone he meets. He is also very polite to Mrs Dubose even though Mrs Dubose shout insults to him every time he walks by. Atticus would sweep off his hat, wave gallantly to her and say, ‘Good evening, Mrs Dubose! You look like a picture this evening. ’† This shows that even though Mrs Dubose is horrid to him, he still says hello and is polite to her. Atticus is also very aware of his own reputation and tries to be morally good as much as he can be. He does this by helping Tom Robinson in a case they would probably lose. Scout asks him why he is defending Tom Robinson and Atticus replies, â€Å"The main one is that if I didnt, I couldnt hold my head up in town†. This shows he has morals that he follows so that he can have respect not for others but himself as well. Throughout chapters 1-17 Atticus is shown as a courageous person. As well as being courageous he is non-judgemental especially when he says, â€Å"You never really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view until you climb into his skin and walk around in it†. Atticus is also portrayed as a caring father when Scout is having trouble at school; Atticus is there to support her. Harper Lee has overall made Atticus a very polite, wise and respected man in To Kill A Mockingbird.

Setting of Observation Essay Example for Free

Setting of Observation Essay A specific area in a large park. 2:10: Two (2) women stood beside a picnic table over which was covered with a blue plastic tablecloth. They put their purses beneath the table to the far right hand side leaning against the leg. One (1) woman placed rocks at each corner of the tablecloth so it would stay in place. She joked that the weather could be unpredictable. She asked the other woman if she thought they might need extra chairs. She called the woman by name (Susan; I later learned the other woman’s name was Nancy). Susan said that they could decide that later, depending on how many children showed up for the party, and if needed, she had extra chairs in back of the van. Susan went to the van, and returned within a minute carrying two plastic bags. In each bag were two litter bottles of No-name Cola. She placed them on the table, wiped dust from the plastic bottles with her hand. She said that she saw a television documentary that stated pop bottles were sources of germs. â€Å"Especially the small cans,† she explained. â€Å"You should always clean the entire top. † Nancy listened, but did not respond. Instead, she said she would go to her car and get the â€Å"other stuff†. She asked Susan if the cake would be all right left in her car, or if it would melt, because it was very warm outside. Susan said, â€Å"We should have brought a cooler. † After discussing this, they decided that since Nancy’s car was parked in the shade, it should be okay. Nancy went to her car, sat in the driver’s side and lit up a cigarette. She put the window down half way. Susan glanced over at Susan in her car, frowned, then sat down at the picnic table. There was a squirrel in a tree nearby, making noise. Susan looked at the squirrel and said, â€Å"Don’t have anything for you, little guy. † About eight minutes later, Nancy returned to the picnic table, holding a square, cardboard box in her arms. She put the box on the table and withdrew an unopened bag of whistle blowers, a bag of balloons, and cut pieces of string. She said she had grab bags in the box for later, as well as surprises, Styrofoam cups, paper towels, and Band-Aids if needed. 2: 24: Both women began to blow up eight balloons of various colors, and attach string to each one. There were still balloons left in the bag. Nancy said, â€Å"I think this is enough. † She laughed. Both women tied each balloon to nearby tree limbs. One balloon got away. Susan chased after it, then attached it to a tree. When this was completed, Nancy put the opened bag of balloons in her purse, closed it and put the purse back in place. Nancy said, â€Å"Krista should soon be here. † She looked at her watch. Susan said, â€Å"Hope she knows what park it is. † Susan assured Nancy that Krista had been to this park on a number of occasions. Susan withdrew a cell phone out of her sweater pocket, just as a silver van pulled in. Susan put the cell back in her pocket. Both women took a few steps forward toward the van. 2: 38: Six (6) children burst out of the van. All the children yelled â€Å"Surprise! † The children then ran toward the picnic table. There were five girls and one boy. One (1) child, a girl, who looked to be about eight years old, hugged Susan. She said, â€Å"I had a feeling about it. Where is my cake? † Susan said, â€Å"Oh, you’ll get it in a bit. Happy Birthday! I’m ordering some pizza first. † The child clapped her hands. Two other girls (2) came up to the Birthday girl, and the three (3) girls went to look at the balloons in the trees. The one boy sat at the picnic table. He said he didn’t like girl parties. Susan rubbed his head and laughed. She said that’s how it was to be a little brother. † The boy folded his arms and asked when the pizza would arrive. Susan and Nancy sat at the picnic table. Krista called the children together and said they would play a game. Nancy got up to help. Susan and the boy remained sitting at the picnic table. Susan took her cell phone out of her pocket, then stood up and walked a few feet away. Krista told the five (5) children that they would be playing a game. She said she would sing and then she would say freeze. She said that the child who was caught moving was out of the game. The game would continue until the last child remained. She said that the last child would get to pick out a prize from the box on the picnic table. Krista half hummed and sang, then yelled, â€Å"Freeze! † She pointed to one girl and said that she had moved. The girl said, â€Å"Au,† and stood away, still watching. This went on until the last girl was the winner. The winner went to the picnic table, and Susan moved the box close to her and told her to shut her eyes. The girl did so, and withdrew a small white bag with the words ‘Happy Birthday’ decorated on it. The girl ripped the bag open. The contents of the bag were a pencil and sharpener, a bag of candy, a small red yo-yo, a movie certificate. Nancy came over to the table, and explained that ‘Ashley’ had picked the wrong thing. â€Å"That’s the grab bags, not the prizes! † Ashley asked what the movie certificate was for. Susan said that she had hoped all the girls would go to a movie soon. The other four (4) girls saw what Ashley had and stood around her. â€Å"This is the surprises? † One girl asked. Susan explained that they were the grab bags and there was a mistake. She said they all would get one later. She then took the grab bags out of the box, took out a bag and instructed Ashley to put her hand in and pick something. She chose a Hannah Montana lanyard. She said, â€Å"Oh, I love Hannah Montana! † She showed it to the other girls. 2: 57: Krista asked if they wanted to play another game, a scavenger hunt. The girls all said yes. Krista said that the first person to find the items would be the winner, and that they should work in pairs, or threes. Krista said they were to find a pine cone, a feather, a pretty rock, and something unusual. She said that they had twenty minutes and the winner would be the team who found the most. She said that they were not to go far, and that in twenty minutes, she would holler out to them to come back. The boy decided he wanted to play, too, and the six children went into the woods. When they were gone for five minutes, three large pizzas arrived. Susan said that was a fast delivery. She paid the delivery person who was a young man, and gave him a five dollar tip. She thanked him, and he left, getting into a car. Nancy put out Styrofoam cups, and said to Susan that Krista should call the children back before the twenty minutes were up, so the pizza wouldn’t get cold. Krista shrugged. Susan said that the kids wouldn’t care if the pizza was warm, and that it wouldn’t get cold that fast. The three (3) women sat at the picnic table saying very little to each other. Then Nancy went to her car and lit another cigarette, while Nancy and Krista watched her. 3: 07: Nancy finished her cigarette, and said to Krista, â€Å"Just call the children now. They can continue their game after they eat. † Susan said that would be best. Krista got up from the picnic table and yelled for the children to come back now. She yelled, â€Å"Pizza’s here! † 3:09: Four (4) of the six children returned, some of them holding objects like a rock, a feather, sticks. They put their scavenger hunt treasures on the ground in separate gatherings, then went toward the pizza. Susan said they had to wait until the other children returned so they would all eat at the same time. 3:10: Krista said she would go into the woods to find the other two (2) children. Nancy poured pop into Styrofoam cups, and said they could have a drink while they waited. 3: 13: Krista came back with the two (2) children running ahead of her. The children dropped what they had collected and went toward the table. Susan said they would need more chairs. While Susan went toward her car, Nancy said that they had forgotten plates. She said they would have to eat off of paper towels. Observation No: 2 Specific store in a shopping mall: The store owner, Mrs. Peach, operates a boutique selling eclectic wares that include aromatherapy and other items designed for personal well-being. She also sells a small amount of clothes that have new age symbols on them. 11:05: Mrs. Peach put dust cleaner on a cloth, and wiped down her counter, which is made of wood. She then cleaned the sides of stands. She adjusted her sign near the entrance that said ‘50% off Today’. She looked at a few people walking by and smiled at them. A woman from the next store came up to the entrance, and began talking with Mrs. Peach. She kept folding and unfolding her arms as she spoke. She said, â€Å"Even for a Monday, you’d think there’d be more than this around. † Mrs. Peach said, â€Å"I know. With the holiday and all. † The woman then began to tell Mrs. Peach about her niece who was recently married. She described the wedding, said the cake was just beautiful. She said that she didn’t care for her niece’s husband, but that she would probably warm up to him in time. Mrs. Peach nodded. She kept looking beyond the woman. A man walked by, and the woman stopped talking. They both watched him go into the La Chateau store. 11:15: Two (2) customers, a man and a woman, came into Mrs. Peach’s store. The woman she’d been talking with went back into her store. Mrs. Peach greeted them with a smile. She said, â€Å"Can I help you find something today? † The woman said, â€Å"It smells nice in here. † Mrs. Peach said it was an oil that she puts into a tiny dish. She said she would like to burn oil, but the rules of the mall prevented her from doing that. The man didn’t say anything. He just stood beside the woman. The woman then asked Mrs. Peach if she sold vitamins. Mrs. Peach said that she didn’t, but she could recommend a naturalistic store across town. The customer asked the name of this store. Mrs. Peach told her, adding that it was next to a grocery store, and easy to find. 11:18: The customer said she would like to browse. Mrs. Peach said, â€Å" If you have any questions, let me know. † Then Mrs. Peach went to a clothing rack that held long gown dresses. One of the hangers was faced the opposite way from the others. Mrs. Peach fixed it so it would be presented correctly. Mrs. Peach went behind the cash counter and straightened some papers, and turned on a stereo. Soft new age music could be heard. She adjusted the volume, turning it down slightly. 11: 22 The woman customer stopped at the aromatherapy stand, and began smelling the bottled testers. She asked Mrs. Peach if the oils could be used as perfume. â€Å"No, they’re not diluted enough for that. It could bother your skin. We can make perfumes, however, even mix scents you like. † The customer said that she especially liked the mint smell. Mrs. Peach said she liked it, too. She said it was invigorating, and smelling it gave energy and cleared the mind. Mrs. Peach held up another bottled tester. She said, â€Å"You might like this one, too. It smells like nature. † The woman held it and read aloud the name of the oil which was called ‘A walk in the Forest. ’ She asked the man with her to smell it. She asked him if he liked it, and he said, â€Å"I guess it’s all right. † The customer gave the bottle back to Mrs. Peach who put it back beside the other testers. The customer picked up the mint smell again, and put it close to the man’s nose. â€Å"Do you like this one better? † she asked. He said that it was okay. Mrs. Peach chuckled and said that scents usually only appealed to women. The customer smelled three more scents. Mrs. Peach went to the counter, then returned with a bowl of coffee and said, â€Å"Smell the coffee between smelling the oils. It will help you not mix up the scents. † The customer smelled the coffee, then continued to smell the testers. After a few moments, the customer told Mrs. Peach that she’d like a bottle of the mint oil, and Mrs. Peach brought a sealed bottle it to the counter. The customer paid for the bottle. She said she didn’t need a bag as she would put it in her purse. Mrs. Peach said â€Å"Thanks for coming in. See you next time. † The customer left the store 11:40: The phone rang. Mrs. Peach answered it. She said, â€Å"Thanks for calling Sun and Moon, Laura speaking. † She said, â€Å"Yes, we do,† and â€Å"Anywhere from ten to twenty five dollars,† and â€Å"We close at six today. Look forward to seeing you. † Mrs. Peach put the phone back in its cradle, looked under the counter, then stood up again. 11:41: A woman walked into the store and went toward Mrs. Peach. Mrs. Peach said, â€Å"Not much business here today. Might pick up after lunch. † Mrs. Peach then told the woman that since there wasn’t much business, she could use the opportunity to straighten and clean the store. She said that had already done a little dusting. She pointed to the 50% sign, and asked if the woman could try to keep it straight, as it kept falling to one side. The woman said she would try. The woman said, â€Å"Can I go to the bathroom first? I’ll be quick. † Mrs. Peach said, â€Å"Sandy, your shift doesn’t even start until noon. † They both laughed. Sandy, an obvious store employee left the store, said hello to the woman in the next door and went toward the bathroom. 11: 43: Mrs. Peach took her purse from a shelf under the counter, and put it on the counter. She took out a tube of lipstick and put it on her lips. Using her thumb and forefinger, she wiped the edges of her mouth. She took out a little mirror and examined herself. A man came with a delivery for Mrs. Peach’s store. It was three (3) boxes. She told the man to put them beside the counter. The man did so. He asked Mrs. Peach to sign for the delivery, and she did. Then Mrs. Peach said than you, and the man left. Mrs. Peach tore off an envelope that was attached to one of the boxes. She put the envelope beside the cash register, then reached for a paper cutter knife. She used it to cut the tape off one box, then put it on the floor. She looked inside the box. She picked up a small square pillow that was embroidered with the word ‘Peace’. Mrs. Peach smelled it, then put it back in the box. Then she withdrew a bag that held colorful rocks. She put the bag on the counter. 11:48: Sandy, the employee woman came back from the bathroom. She said, â€Å"Oh, new stock. Great! † Mrs. Peach said, â€Å"We finally got our stones. † She instructed the woman to do her best to put out the stock. Then she took her sweater, put in on and said she was leaving, and that she was starving for lunch. She said, â€Å"Call if there’s a problem. Bye. † Observation 3 Classroom Setting: 1: 30: The French teacher, Miss Horne waited by the door for the next class of students to arrive. The hall was noisy. Children were laughing and talking loudly. They came into Miss Horne’s grade four class, some of them running. Miss Horne waited until all the children were inside, then stood at the front of the room. Most of the children settled down, but two (2) boys kept laughing and talking. Miss Horne said, â€Å"You two want extra work? † They smirked, but stopped their noise. She said she would give the class five minutes to be quiet before they began. 1:34: Miss Horne went to the board and said, â€Å"We’re going to review what we’ve been learning about the last few days. Can anyone remember what that is? † A girl put up her hand. Miss Horne nodded to her. â€Å"Names of animals,† the child said. â€Å"That’s right,† Miss Horne said. â€Å"Let’s see how much we remember. Turn your brains on. † The children laughed and some made a key turning action with their fingers on their heads. Miss Horne said, â€Å"Now then. You must answer in French. What kind of an animal goes, â€Å"Hiss, me-oww. † Several of the children yelled out, â€Å"La Chat! † Mrs. Horne told them that they had to put up their hands. Most of the children then put up their hands, but she didn’t choose any of those children who had called out. She picked a girl in the front row. The little girl said, â€Å"La Chat. † â€Å"Very good, Nakita,† said Miss Horne. She wrote the words ‘La Chat’ low on the board. A boy put up his hand. â€Å"Yes, Paul†, Miss Horne said. The boy said that his mom said they would be getting him a kitten. Mrs. Horne told the boy that was wonderful. Then she asked him, â€Å"Now can you tell me what animal you often find people walking in the park? † 1: 37: Paul said, â€Å"Cats? † The (2) two boys who had been causing trouble at the beginning of class laughed and gave each other a high five. Paul yelled, â€Å"Shut up! † It looked like he was about to cry. Miss Horne walked to where the two boys were sitting. She told them that they were being very rude, and very disrespectful to interrupt their class for other students who were interested in learning. She added that she would be sure to tell their homeroom teacher about how they had misbehaved. She asked the boys if there was anything they wanted to say to Paul. One boy said, â€Å"I’m sorry. † Miss Horne said he needed to say what he was sorry for. The boy said, â€Å"I’m sorry, Paul, for laughing at you. † Then she asked the other boy if he had anything to say, and he said he, too, was sorry for laughing at Paul. Miss Horne told one boy to sit in an empty seat on the other side of the room. Then she told a girl to switch seats with the other boy, so they would be separated. She told the entire class if there was any more foolishness, she would be calling parents. 1: 46: She went to Paul’s seat, and told him not to pay any attention to them. He said okay. She went back to the board, hesitated, then said, â€Å"Who would like to do the teacher a favor? † Lots of hands went up. She walked around the class for several moments, looking at the students closely, in a fun fashion. Then she went back to the board and said, â€Å"I don’t want any talking. Neil, come on up here. † He went near her, and she whispered in his ear. He drew a bird on the board. Miss Horne said, â€Å"What a great drawing. Boys and girls, who can tell me what this is in French? Several hands went up. She said, â€Å"What is it, Rayden? † He said, â€Å"oiseau†. Miss Horne said, â€Å"Real close. Want to try again? † Rayden thought about it, then said, â€Å"L’oiseau? † Miss Horne gave a little clap with her hand. â€Å"Great going, Rayden. † 1:51: There was a knock at the door. Miss Horne went toward it, then opened it. It was the secretary from the principal’s office. The secretary asked if she could talk to Miss Horne for a few minutes. They stepped outside the room, keeping the door open. They talked quietly. Ms. Horne stepped inside the class and said, â€Å"Miss Horne needs to take a phone call, and Mrs. Brown will stay here with you for a few minutes. Maybe she can read you a story. Mrs. Brown said, â€Å"Not a French one, I hope†. Miss Horne asked one of the children to pick out a book from the English shelf, and then the teacher left. Mrs. Brown sat down at a seat at the head of the room. Some of the children asked if they could come sit on the floor, because that’s what Miss Horne does. Mrs. Brown agreed, and all the students by her. The book was called, ‘Arthur Cluck’. She read to them, and they were very quiet and intrigued. 2:09: Miss Horne came back. She said it was okay if Mrs. Brown finished the book. She agreed, and Miss Horne went to her desk and sat down. 2:16: Mrs. Brown finished the book. â€Å"What do we tell Mrs. Brown, boys and girls? † They said in unison (Thank you, Mrs. Brown). â€Å"And thanks for watching the class,† Miss Horne added. Then she whispered, â€Å"I used the time to go to the bathroom, too. Thanks! † She turned to the class. â€Å"Looks like we didn’t get a whole lot done today. Let’s hope tomorrow will be better for us all. † Then she explained that they may as well do a little more of their review. She said, â€Å"What animal eats grass, weighs a lot and lives on a farm? † Someone said ‘horse’. She said that wasn’t it. Paul put up his hand and said, â€Å"An elephant. † Miss Horne said, â€Å"I guess it could be an elephant, but this animal goes, â€Å"Nayyy. † Paul chuckled and said, â€Å"a horse. † Miss Horne said she needed to hear it in French. Paul said, â€Å"That’s means un cheval. † She then asked the French names for other animals, including cow, pig, wolf, and goat. 2:27: Miss Horne said it was almost time to go back to their homeroom. She wanted them to clean up around their desk, and put their books away. † 2:29: Miss Horne said that she would walk the students back to their homeroom. She said, â€Å"Now use your hall voices, boys and girls. † They left together. Scenario 4: Inside a fitness center: 7: 21: Two(2) adult men, approximately 30 35, and a younger teenage boy, approximately 17, entered the gym. It was a fairly small gym. They began stretching their legs and arms, and talking among themselves. The youngest male said, â€Å"Dad, I don’t think I locked my locker. † His father told him that before they really got started, he should go and check, just in case. The boy agreed. He left. The father said to his friend, â€Å"Swear he’d forget his was, he’s so forgetful. God, kids today. † 7:22: The father sprayed the weight bench with a cleaner, one of many that were in the fitness center. He took a white towel, wiped down the bench, then put the cleaner and the white towel away (there was a bin for used towels and another for clean towels). 7: 23: They went toward the weights. The father suggested they do their usual routine. Then he lay on the bench, and his friend put a 130 pound weight in his grasp. He lifted the weight easily. He counted down from ten to one. Then he stopped and they talked for a few moments, and the other man took his turn at the weights. 7:33: The father’s son came back, and announced that he had indeed locked his locker. When the man did his weights, Shawn watched, then he also did three sets with a lower weight, while his father encouraged him. 7: 42: When Shawn finished, his father adjusted the weight bench so that it was on an incline. They each took their turns doing the weights this way. At one point, Shawn’s father’s friend said he was getting a cramp, and he said, â€Å"This is my last set for tonight. † He said he had to go to the bathroom. Shawn and his father sat on the bench. Shawn’s father told him about a story where a guy dropped the weight across his chest, and that he couldn’t get up, or barely move. He yelled out for someone to help him, and two (2) women each held an edge each. They lifted the weight, but then dropped it. The man’s ribs were broken and he could barely move. Shawn listened, his mouth opened. He said that he wasn’t sure he believed that. â€Å"You’re always making up stories, Dad. † A group of people, mostly women, went into a room. An instructor (1) came out and said, â€Å"Aerobics, last call. † Shawn said he thought they should go in, too. His father laughed and told him that he only wanted to go in because of the women, and part of getting fit was not letting anything distract you. Shawn rolled his eyes and said that he hoped there would never be a day when women didn’t distract him. Shawn watched the last woman go in, a slim woman about his age. He gave a low whistle only he and his dad could hear. 7: 54: Shawn’s father said that he wondered how his friend was doing. He said, â€Å"Maybe I should go check on Cal. † He told Shawn not to continue the weights until he came back. There were other men there who said they wanted to use that bench, and Shawn’s father said that was okay. Shawn said he would go and run on the treadmill until they returned. 7: 56: Shawn walked to the right where the treadmills were, along with stationary bikes and other equipment. Shawn walked around, and all treadmills were in use. He walked back to the weights, then returned again to the treadmills. 7: 58: A woman (1) noticed Shawn. She asked him if he was waiting for a treadmill. He said that he was. She said, â€Å"I’m almost finished. About five minutes more. Sign your name under mine. † Shawn said â€Å"Thank you,† then signed his name on a list on the wall. He walked around for a bit, then came back to wait. 8:02: The woman got off the treadmill, wiped it with a towel that was around her neck. She said, â€Å"It’s all yours,† and Shawn thanked her. He got on the treadmill, and adjusted it so he was at a fast walking pace. He did this for a few minutes, then increased the speed so he was jogging. 8:16: Shawn’s father and Cal came up to the treadmill. Shawn’s father said they couldn’t see him right away as he was the last one against the wall. Shawn asked Cal how he was doing, and Cal said, â€Å"Ah, it was nothing. Gas, I think. † Shawn slowed down the treadmill. He said, â€Å"Are we going to finish our sets? † Cal said yes, and Shawn stopped the treadmill pace and let it slow down. Then he got off, and sprayed it with cleaner and a white towel, then put the cleaning items away. 8:17: The three (3) went toward the weights, but the other men were still on the bench they were previously using. Cal said, â€Å"This isn’t our night. † He suggested they do lengths in the pool instead. The others agreed. But then Shawn said that he didn’t have his swimming trunks with him. The three of them laughed, shaking their heads. 8:20: Shawn said they should just go have a coffee somewhere. Cal said he was just going to go on home. They left the gym together.